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Generic Operating System Services — Python 2.7.5 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/default.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript"> var DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS = { URL_ROOT: '../', VERSION: '2.7.5', COLLAPSE_INDEX: false, FILE_SUFFIX: '.html', HAS_SOURCE: true }; </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="top" title="Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../index.html" /> <link rel="up" title="The Python Standard Library" href="index.html" /> <link rel="next" title="15.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces" href="os.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="14.4. sha — SHA-1 message digest algorithm" href="sha.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head> <body> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="os.html" title="15.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="sha.html" title="14.4. sha — SHA-1 message digest algorithm" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.5 documentation</a> » </li> <li><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">The Python Standard Library</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body"> <div class="section" id="generic-operating-system-services"> <span id="allos"></span><h1>15. Generic Operating System Services<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-operating-system-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <p>The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and a clock. The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces, but they are available on most other systems as well. Here’s an overview:</p> <div class="toctree-wrapper compound"> <ul> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html">15.1. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">os</span></tt> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-parameters">15.1.1. Process Parameters</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-object-creation">15.1.2. File Object Creation</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-descriptor-operations">15.1.3. File Descriptor Operations</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#open-flag-constants">15.1.3.1. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">open()</span></tt> flag constants</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#files-and-directories">15.1.4. Files and Directories</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-management">15.1.5. Process Management</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#miscellaneous-system-information">15.1.6. Miscellaneous System Information</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#miscellaneous-functions">15.1.7. Miscellaneous Functions</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html">15.2. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">io</span></tt> — Core tools for working with streams</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#module-interface">15.2.1. Module Interface</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#i-o-base-classes">15.2.2. I/O Base Classes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-file-i-o">15.2.3. Raw File I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#buffered-streams">15.2.4. Buffered Streams</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#text-i-o">15.2.5. Text I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#advanced-topics">15.2.6. Advanced topics</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#performance">15.2.6.1. Performance</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#binary-i-o">15.2.6.1.1. Binary I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id1">15.2.6.1.2. Text I/O</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#multi-threading">15.2.6.2. Multi-threading</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#reentrancy">15.2.6.3. Reentrancy</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html">15.3. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">time</span></tt> — Time access and conversions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html">15.4. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">argparse</span></tt> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#example">15.4.1. Example</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#creating-a-parser">15.4.1.1. Creating a parser</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#adding-arguments">15.4.1.2. Adding arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parsing-arguments">15.4.1.3. Parsing arguments</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argumentparser-objects">15.4.2. ArgumentParser objects</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prog">15.4.2.1. prog</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#usage">15.4.2.2. usage</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#description">15.4.2.3. description</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#epilog">15.4.2.4. epilog</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parents">15.4.2.5. parents</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#formatter-class">15.4.2.6. formatter_class</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prefix-chars">15.4.2.7. prefix_chars</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#fromfile-prefix-chars">15.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-default">15.4.2.9. argument_default</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#conflict-handler">15.4.2.10. conflict_handler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#add-help">15.4.2.11. add_help</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-add-argument-method">15.4.3. The add_argument() method</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#name-or-flags">15.4.3.1. name or flags</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#action">15.4.3.2. action</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#nargs">15.4.3.3. nargs</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#const">15.4.3.4. const</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#default">15.4.3.5. default</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#type">15.4.3.6. type</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#choices">15.4.3.7. choices</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#required">15.4.3.8. required</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#help">15.4.3.9. help</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#metavar">15.4.3.10. metavar</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#dest">15.4.3.11. dest</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-parse-args-method">15.4.4. The parse_args() method</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#option-value-syntax">15.4.4.1. Option value syntax</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#invalid-arguments">15.4.4.2. Invalid arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#arguments-containing">15.4.4.3. Arguments containing <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-</span></tt></a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-abbreviations">15.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#beyond-sys-argv">15.4.4.5. Beyond <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></tt></a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-namespace-object">15.4.4.6. The Namespace object</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#other-utilities">15.4.5. Other utilities</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#sub-commands">15.4.5.1. Sub-commands</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#filetype-objects">15.4.5.2. FileType objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-groups">15.4.5.3. Argument groups</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#mutual-exclusion">15.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parser-defaults">15.4.5.5. Parser defaults</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#printing-help">15.4.5.6. Printing help</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#partial-parsing">15.4.5.7. Partial parsing</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#customizing-file-parsing">15.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#exiting-methods">15.4.5.9. Exiting methods</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code">15.4.6. Upgrading optparse code</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html">15.5. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">optparse</span></tt> — Parser for command line options</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#background">15.5.1. Background</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#terminology">15.5.1.1. Terminology</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#what-are-options-for">15.5.1.2. What are options for?</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#what-are-positional-arguments-for">15.5.1.3. What are positional arguments for?</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#tutorial">15.5.2. Tutorial</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#understanding-option-actions">15.5.2.1. Understanding option actions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#the-store-action">15.5.2.2. The store action</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#handling-boolean-flag-options">15.5.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#other-actions">15.5.2.4. Other actions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#default-values">15.5.2.5. Default values</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#generating-help">15.5.2.6. Generating help</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#grouping-options">15.5.2.6.1. Grouping Options</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#printing-a-version-string">15.5.2.7. Printing a version string</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#how-optparse-handles-errors">15.5.2.8. How <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">optparse</span></tt> handles errors</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#putting-it-all-together">15.5.2.9. Putting it all together</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#reference-guide">15.5.3. Reference Guide</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#creating-the-parser">15.5.3.1. Creating the parser</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#populating-the-parser">15.5.3.2. Populating the parser</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#defining-options">15.5.3.3. Defining options</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#option-attributes">15.5.3.4. Option attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#standard-option-actions">15.5.3.5. Standard option actions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#standard-option-types">15.5.3.6. Standard option types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#parsing-arguments">15.5.3.7. Parsing arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser">15.5.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#conflicts-between-options">15.5.3.9. Conflicts between options</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#cleanup">15.5.3.10. Cleanup</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#other-methods">15.5.3.11. Other methods</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#option-callbacks">15.5.4. Option Callbacks</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#defining-a-callback-option">15.5.4.1. Defining a callback option</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#how-callbacks-are-called">15.5.4.2. How callbacks are called</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#raising-errors-in-a-callback">15.5.4.3. Raising errors in a callback</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-1-trivial-callback">15.5.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-2-check-option-order">15.5.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized">15.5.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition">15.5.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-5-fixed-arguments">15.5.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-6-variable-arguments">15.5.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#extending-optparse">15.5.5. Extending <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">optparse</span></tt></a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#adding-new-types">15.5.5.1. Adding new types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#adding-new-actions">15.5.5.2. Adding new actions</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getopt.html">15.6. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">getopt</span></tt> — C-style parser for command line options</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html">15.7. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">logging</span></tt> — Logging facility for Python</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logger-objects">15.7.1. Logger Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#handler-objects">15.7.2. Handler Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#formatter-objects">15.7.3. Formatter Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#filter-objects">15.7.4. Filter Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-objects">15.7.5. LogRecord Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-attributes">15.7.6. LogRecord attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#loggeradapter-objects">15.7.7. LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#thread-safety">15.7.8. Thread Safety</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-level-functions">15.7.9. Module-Level Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#integration-with-the-warnings-module">15.7.10. Integration with the warnings module</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html">15.8. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></tt> — Logging configuration</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-functions">15.8.1. Configuration functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-dictionary-schema">15.8.2. Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#dictionary-schema-details">15.8.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#incremental-configuration">15.8.2.2. Incremental Configuration</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#object-connections">15.8.2.3. Object connections</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#user-defined-objects">15.8.2.4. User-defined objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-external-objects">15.8.2.5. Access to external objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-internal-objects">15.8.2.6. Access to internal objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#import-resolution-and-custom-importers">15.8.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-file-format">15.8.3. Configuration file format</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html">15.9. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></tt> — Logging handlers</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#streamhandler">15.9.1. StreamHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#filehandler">15.9.2. FileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#nullhandler">15.9.3. NullHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#watchedfilehandler">15.9.4. WatchedFileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#rotatingfilehandler">15.9.5. RotatingFileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#timedrotatingfilehandler">15.9.6. TimedRotatingFileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#sockethandler">15.9.7. SocketHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#datagramhandler">15.9.8. DatagramHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#sysloghandler">15.9.9. SysLogHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#nteventloghandler">15.9.10. NTEventLogHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#smtphandler">15.9.11. SMTPHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#memoryhandler">15.9.12. MemoryHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#httphandler">15.9.13. HTTPHandler</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html">15.10. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">getpass</span></tt> — Portable password input</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html">15.11. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">curses</span></tt> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#functions">15.11.1. Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#window-objects">15.11.2. Window Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#constants">15.11.3. Constants</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#module-curses.textpad">15.12. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></tt> — Text input widget for curses programs</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#textbox-objects">15.12.1. Textbox objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.ascii.html">15.13. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></tt> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html">15.14. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></tt> — A panel stack extension for curses</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html#functions">15.14.1. Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html#panel-objects">15.14.2. Panel Objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html">15.15. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">platform</span></tt> — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#cross-platform">15.15.1. Cross Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#java-platform">15.15.2. Java Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#windows-platform">15.15.3. Windows Platform</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#win95-98-specific">15.15.3.1. Win95/98 specific</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#mac-os-platform">15.15.4. Mac OS Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#unix-platforms">15.15.5. Unix Platforms</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="errno.html">15.16. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">errno</span></tt> — Standard errno system symbols</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html">15.17. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></tt> — A foreign function library for Python</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes-tutorial">15.17.1. ctypes tutorial</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#loading-dynamic-link-libraries">15.17.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls">15.17.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#calling-functions">15.17.1.3. Calling functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#fundamental-data-types">15.17.1.4. Fundamental data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#calling-functions-continued">15.17.1.5. Calling functions, continued</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types">15.17.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">15.17.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#return-types">15.17.1.8. Return types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">15.17.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structures-and-unions">15.17.1.10. Structures and unions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">15.17.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">15.17.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#arrays">15.17.1.13. Arrays</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#pointers">15.17.1.14. Pointers</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#type-conversions">15.17.1.15. Type conversions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#incomplete-types">15.17.1.16. Incomplete Types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#callback-functions">15.17.1.17. Callback functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">15.17.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#surprises">15.17.1.19. Surprises</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#variable-sized-data-types">15.17.1.20. Variable-sized data types</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes-reference">15.17.2. ctypes reference</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#finding-shared-libraries">15.17.2.1. Finding shared libraries</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#loading-shared-libraries">15.17.2.2. Loading shared libraries</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#foreign-functions">15.17.2.3. Foreign functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#function-prototypes">15.17.2.4. Function prototypes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#utility-functions">15.17.2.5. Utility functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#data-types">15.17.2.6. Data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2">15.17.2.7. Fundamental data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structured-data-types">15.17.2.8. Structured data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#arrays-and-pointers">15.17.2.9. 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